Typical college students avoid the work required to compose a finished and polished essay or speech. It’s obvious they skimp on editing and avoid proofreading, but more to the detriment of their audience, they also often make a leap from thesis to outline to final product without stopping to think. The stage of the composing process in which the writer or speaker develops an idea is called, from classical rhetoric, invention. Invention is not only the art of thinking about or researching content, but also the art of exploring a topic, testing ideas, building a logical case, and making it suitable for an specific audience. Invention—arguably the most important part of writing process—is often neglected by instructors as well. We tell students to select a topic, to research (sometimes), to plan (often by writing an outline), and to draft, revise, and proofread. We seldom provide any insight into the process of invention.
The outline turned in a few weeks before the due date, some instructors claim, results in better writing or presentations. That’s true. Any assignment that slows students down and makes them spend more time on composing is bound to help. An outline is a good idea because it helps a writer organize and generate material. However, it’s primarily an organization tool. Although it can expose gaps in content, it starts at the wrong place. Composing should start with exploration. Academic compositions should also include a healthy dose of skepticism and a solid amount of research (or at least be based in knowledge).
Before the outline, there has to be content. Often we are developing content that students can use in their projects through our course’s readings and discussions, but we seldom help students develop that content in a way that relates to their specific composing task. Below are some ways, with a nod to Aristotle, to encourage students to think about their topic or thesis from a variety of angles.
Describe an object or process. Consider the audience carefully—who needs to read a description, and why? Will the reader want to follow the directions (as in how to build a hen house) or just know what was done (as in the methods section of a scientific study)? Break the description into parts or into steps, and order them chronologically, spatially, or logically.
Define or Classify. Definition sets out the conditions or attributes of something. Arguments can be based on definition. So we might define animal rights as freedom from unnecessary suffering to argue for a vegan lifestyle, or we might define life as beginning at conception to argue against birth control.
Classification depends on definition. You define the attributes of a category and then show that whatever you are categorizing has those attributes. For example, you might show that genetically engineered corn is safe for human consumption by defining safe food (it is nutritious, does not cause harm, is non-toxic, etc.).
Determine Cause and Effect. Showing cause is tricky, and often the best we can do is show correlation. Other times, we have to link chains of causes. If you want to argue that grass-fed beef results in leaner, healthier meats, you might start by citing studies that measure the amount of fat in grass- versus corn-fed beef. However, depending on the audience, you might also need to show that a diet lower in animal fat is indeed healthier. If the audience will accept that a diet lower in animal fat is healthier, you can just assume that.
Compare and Contrast. Finding something that is similar or markedly different can help you make an argument by analogy. If, for example, you want to warn against a particular government policy, you can liken it to a similar policy that failed in the past. By the same token, you can show how it contrasts with a different, successful policy. So you might want to argue that a new jobs bill will not be successful because it is (or is not, depending on your view), like the New Deal.
Analyze. To analyze means to break something into parts and then show how the various parts work together. The trick to a good analysis is to find a clear method of breaking something up—you use a set of tools such as the theory or the methodology from a particular field or sub-field. To analyze the American diet, you would have to assume typical meals for a set period of time for a specific type of person (i.e., adult female) and them break them down into units such as calories or nutrients agreed to be important to health (not every nutrient known).
Propose. To propose, you first show there is a problem to be addressed, then show a feasible solution that directly addresses or solves the problem. You might, for example, show the high rate of heart disease in America and then link that to a diet high in animal fats, as a preface to propose that Americans cut their meat consumption by 50%.
A complex argument might use more than one of these strategies. That’s why asking students to start by thinking of multiple approaches to a topic can help them ultimately think it through more carefully and come up with richer arguments. Let’s say, for example, that an essay makes an argument for animal rights with a thesis such as “The use of animal products for food is unacceptable if it causes unnecessary suffering to the animal.” Such an argument starts with a definition of animal rights or human responsibility towards animals (including, perhaps, a definition of animals). It may include comparisons to the use of animals for other products such as testing cosmetics or research, an analysis of the American diet, a discussion of the process of current factory-farm meat production, and a proposal for legislation to regulate such production. Although students may at some point be overwhelmed by the amount of material they generate, they need, if they are to advance as writers, to learn to consider many approaches and then to map one.
Try this technique as homework or as a class exercise. It’s usually a good collaborative exercise. Students can discuss their ideas in pairs or small groups—just talking about their topic to others will also stimulate their ideas, help them improve content, and provide fodder for an outline.